On the transition between heterogeneous and homogeneous freezing

Box model simulations of an uplifting and adiabatically cooling cloud of aerosol have been performed in order to study the transition between cirrus formation dominated by homogeneous nucleation of ice to that dominated by heterogeneous nucleation. The aerosol was assumed to consist of an internal mixture of sulfuric acid solution droplets with inclusions of soot. The parametrisation of De Mott et al. (1997) was used to simulate the heterogeneous nucleation of ice in such droplets with soot inclusions. The simulations show that the transition from heterogeneous to homogeneous nucleation occurs over a narrow range of soot concentration. Thus it seems to be possible to fix critical concentrations of heterogeneous ice nuclei which must be exceeded if heterogeneous freezing dominates cirrus formation. A formula has been derived that allows to compute the critical concentrations of heterogeneous ice nuclei as a function of temperature, updraft speed, ambient pressure, and supersaturation at which heterogeneous freezing occurs. Generally, homogeneous nucleation dominates in regions with updrafts stronger than 20 cm s ^-1, with the exception of heavily polluted areas which could be common in the northern hemisphere due to air traffic, where updrafts of the order 1 m s^-1 may be necessary to render heterogeneous nucleation unimportant. According to the present results it cannot be excluded that heterogeneous nucleation plays a more important role for cirrus formation in the northern midlatitudes than anywhere else. A possible consequence of these results is that air pollution may lead to a higher coverage of cirrus clouds, but then these clouds will be optically thinner than clouds formed by homogeneous freezing, with the exception of regions where condensation trails are frequent

Numerical simulations of contrail-to-cirrus transition – Part 2: Impact of initial ice crystal number, radiation, stratification, secondary nucleation and layer depth

Simulations of contrail-to-cirrus transition were performed with an LES model. In Part 1 the impact of relative humidity, temperature and vertical wind shear was explored in a detailed parametric study. Here, we study atmospheric parameters like stratification and depth of the supersaturated layer and processes which may affect the contrail evolution. We consider contrails in various radiation scenarios herein defined by the season, time of day and the presence of lower-level cloudiness which controls the radiance incident on the contrail layer. Under suitable conditions, controlled by the radiation scenario and stratification, radiative heating lifts the contrail-cirrus and prolongs its lifetime. The potential of contrail-driven secondary nucleation is investigated. We consider homogeneous nucleation and heterogeneous nucleation of preactivated soot cores released from sublimated contrail ice crystals. In our model the contrail dynamics triggered by radiative heating does not suffice to force homogeneous freezing of ambient liquid aerosol particles. Furthermore, our model results suggest that heterogeneous nucleation of preactivated soot cores is unimportant. Contrail evolution is not controlled by the depth of the supersaturated layer as long as it exceeds roughly 500 m. Deep fallstreaks however need thicker layers. A variation of the initial ice crystal number is effective during the whole evolution of a contrail. A cut of the soot particle emission by two orders of magnitude can reduce the contrail timescale by one hour and the optical thickness by a factor of 5. Hence future engines with lower soot particle emissions could potentially lead to a reduction of the climate impact of aviation

Analytical treatment of ice sublimation and test of sublimation parameterisations in two–moment ice microphysics models

We derive an analytic solution to the spectral growth/sublimation equation for ice crystals and apply it to idealised cases. The results are used to test parameterisations of the ice sublimation process in two–moment bulk microphysics models. Although it turns out that the relation between number loss fraction and mass loss fraction is not a function since it is not unique, it seems that a functional parameterisation is the best that one can do in a bulk model. Testing a more realistic case with humidity oscillations shows that artificial crystal loss can occur in simulations of mature cirrus clouds with relative humidity fluctuating about ice saturation

Modelling of cirrus clouds ? Part 1: Model description and validation

International audienceA double?moment bulk microphysics scheme for modelling cirrus clouds including explicit impact of aerosols on different types of nucleation mechanism is described. Process rates are formulated in terms of generalised moments of the underlying a priori size distributions in order to allow simple switching between various distribution types. The scheme has been implemented into a simple box model and into the anelastic non-hydrostatic model EULAG. The new microphysics is validated against simulations with detailed microphysics for idealised process studies and for a well documented case of arctic cirrostratus. Additionally, the formation of ice crystals with realistic background aerosol concentration is modelled and the effect of ambient pressure on homogeneous nucleation is investigated in the box model. The arctic cirrostratus case study is also supplemented with sensitivity studies including different vertical velocities, temperature fluctuations and wind shear. The model stands all tests and is thus suitable for cloud?resolving simulations of cirrus clouds. Last but not least, some new results are shown, corroborating the importance of sedimentation and dynamics inside cirrus clouds for forming the structure of the cirrus

Technical Note: 30 years of HIRS data of upper tropospheric humidity

We use 30 years of intercalibrated HIRS (High-Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder) data to produce a 30-year data set of upper tropospheric humidity with respect to ice (UTH_i). Since the required brightness temperatures (channels 12 and 6, <i>T</i>₁₂ and <i>T</i>₆) are intercalibrated to different versions of the HIRS sensors (HIRS/2 and HIRS/4) it is necessary to convert the channel 6 brightness temperatures which are intercalibrated to HIRS/4 into equivalent brightness temperatures intercalibrated to HIRS/2, which is achieved using a linear regression. Using the new regression coefficients we produce daily files of UTH_i, <i>T</i>₁₂ and <i>T</i>₆, for each NOAA satellite and METOP-A (Meteorological Operational Satellite Programme), which carry the HIRS instrument. From this we calculate daily and monthly means in 2.5° &times; 2.5° resolution for the northern midlatitude zone 30–60° N. As a first application we calculate decadal means of UTH_i and the brightness temperatures for the two decades 1980–1989 and 2000–2009. We find that the humidity mainly increased from the 1980s to the 2000s and that this increase is highly statistically significant in large regions of the considered midlatitude belt. The main reason for this result and its statistical significance is the corresponding increase of the <i>T</i>₁₂ variance. Changes of the mean brightness temperatures are less significant

Modelling of cirrus clouds – Part 1b: Structuring cirrus clouds by dynamics

A recently developed and validated bulk microphysics scheme for modelling cirrus clouds (Spichtinger and Gierens, 2009), implemented into the anelastic non-hydrostatic model EULAG is used for investigation of the impact of dynamics on the evolution of an arctic cirrostratus. Sensitivity studies are performed, using variation of large-scale updraughts as well as addition of small-scale temperature fluctuations and wind shear. The results show the importance of sedimentation of ice crystals on cloud evolution. Due to non-linear processes like homogeneous nucleation situations can arise where small changes in the outer parameters have large effects on the resulting cloud structure. In-cloud ice supersaturation is a common feature of all our simulations, and we show that dynamics is as least as important for its appearance than is microphysics

A case study on the formation and evolution of ice supersaturation in the vicinity of a warm conveyor belt's outflow region

A case study is presented on the formation and evolution of an ice-supersaturated region (ISSR) that was detected by a radiosonde in NE Germany at 06:00&nbsp;UTC 29 November 2000. The ISSR was situated in the vicinity of the outflow region of a warm conveyor belt associated with an intense event of cyclogenesis in the eastern North Atlantic. Using ECMWF analyses and trajectory calculations it is determined when the air parcels became supersaturated and later subsaturated again. In the case considered, the state of air parcel supersaturation can last for longer than 24h. The ISSR was unusually thick: while the mean vertical extension of ISSRs in NE Germany is about 500m, the one investigated here reached 3km. The ice-supersaturated region investigated was bordered both vertically and horizontally by strongly subsaturated air. Near the path of the radiosonde the ISSR was probably cloud free, as inferred from METEOSAT infrared images. However, at other locations within the ISSR it is probable that there were cirrus clouds. Relative humidity measurements obtained by the Lindenberg radiosonde are used to correct the negative bias of the ECMWF humidity and to construct two-dimensional maps of ice supersaturation over Europe during the considered period. A systematic backward trajectory analysis for the ISSRs on these maps shows that the ISSR air masses themselves experienced only a moderate upward motion during the previous days, whereas parts of the ISSRs were located just above strongly ascending air masses from the boundary layer. This indicates qualitatively that warm conveyor belts associated with mid-latitude cyclogenesis are disturbances that can induce the formation of ISSRs in the upper troposphere. The ISSR maps also lead us to a new perception of ISSRs as large dynamic regions of supersaturated air where cirrus clouds can be embedded at some locations while there is clear air at others

On the interpretation of upper-tropospheric humidity based on a second-order retrieval from infrared radiances

We present a novel retrieval for upper-tropospheric humidity (UTH) from High-resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS) channel 12 radiances that successfully bridges the wavelength change from 6.7 to 6.5&thinsp;µm that occurred from HIRS/2 on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellite NOAA-14 to HIRS/3 on satellite NOAA-15. The jump in average brightness temperature (in the water vapour channel; T12) that this change had caused (about −7&thinsp;K) could be fixed with a statistical inter-calibration method (Shi and Bates, 2011). Unfortunately, the retrieval of UTHi (upper-tropospheric humidity with respect to ice) based on the inter-calibrated data was not satisfying at the high tail of the distribution of UTHi. Attempts to construct a better inter-calibration in the low T12 range (equivalent to the high UTHi range) were either not successful (Gierens et al., 2018) or required additional statistically determined corrections to the measured brightness temperatures (Gierens and Eleftheratos, 2017). The new method presented here is based on the original one (Soden and Bretherton, 1993; Stephens et al., 1996; Jackson and Bates, 2001), but it extends linearisations in the formulation of water vapour saturation pressure and in the temperature dependence of the Planck function to second order. To achieve the second-order formulation we derive the retrieval from the beginning, and we find that the most influential ingredient is the use of different optical constants for the two involved channel wavelengths (6.7 and 6.5&thinsp;µm). The result of adapting the optical constant is an almost perfect match between UTH data measured by HIRS/2 on NOAA-14 and HIRS/3 on NOAA-15 on 1004 common days of operation. The method is applied to both UTH and UTHi. For each case retrieval coefficients are derived. We present a number of test applications, e.g. on computed brightness temperatures based on high-resolution radiosonde profiles, on the brightness temperatures measured by the satellites on the mentioned 1004 common days of operation. Further, we present time series of the occurrence frequency of high UTHi cases, and we show the overall probability distribution of UTHi. The two latter applications expose indications of moistening of the upper troposphere over the last 35 years. Finally, we discuss the significance of UTH. We state that UTH algorithms cannot be judged for their correctness or incorrectness, since there is no true UTH. Instead, UTH algorithms should fulfill a number of usefulness postulates, which we suggest and discuss.</p